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London Eye

The Merlin Entertainments London Eye (commonly the London Eye, or Millennium Wheel, formerly the British Airways London Eye) is a giant 135-metre (443 ft) tall Ferris wheel situated on the banks of the River Thames in the British capital.

It is the tallest Ferris wheel in Europe, and the most popular paid tourist attraction in the United Kingdom, visited by over 3.5 million people annually. When erected in 1999, it was the tallest Ferris wheel in the world, until surpassed first by the 160 m (520 ft) Star of Nanchang in 2006, and then the 165 m (541 ft) Singapore Flyer in 2008. It is still described by its operators as "the world's tallest cantilevered observation wheel" (as the wheel is supported by an A-frame on one side only, unlike the Nanchang and Singapore wheels).

The London Eye is located at the western end of Jubilee Gardens, on the South Bank of the River Thames in the London Borough of Lambeth in England, between Westminster Bridge and Hungerford Bridge. The site is adjacent to that of the former Dome of Discovery, which was built for the Festival of Britain in 1951.

Design and construction

The wheel carries 32 sealed and air-conditioned egg-shaped passenger capsules, attached to its external circumference, each capsule representing one of the London Boroughs. Each 10 tonne capsule holds 25 people, who are free to walk around inside the capsule, though seating is provided. It rotates at 26 cm (10 in) per second (about 0.9 km/h or 0.6 mph) so that one revolution takes about 30 minutes. The wheel does not usually stop to take on passengers; the rotation rate is slow enough to allow passengers to walk on and off the moving capsules at ground level. It is, however, stopped to allow disabled or elderly passengers time to embark and disembark safely

The rim of the Eye is supported by tie rods and resembles a huge spoked bicycle wheel. The lighting for the London Eye was redone with LED lighting from Color Kinetics in December 2006 to allow digital control of the lights as opposed to the manual replacement of gels over fluorescent tubes.

The wheel was designed by architects David Marks, Julia Barfield, Malcolm Cook, Mark Sparrowhawk, Steven Chilton, Frank Anatole and Nic Bailey.[citation needed] Mace were responsible for construction management with Hollandia as the main steelwork contractor and Tilbury Douglas as the civils contractor. Consulting engineers Tony Gee & Partners designed the foundation works while Beckett Rankine designed the marine works

The wheel was constructed in sections which were floated up the Thames on barges and assembled lying flat on piled platforms in the river. Once the wheel was complete it was raised into an upright position by a strand jack system, at 2 degrees an hour until it reached 65 degrees. It was left in that position for a week while engineers prepared for the second phase of the lift. The total weight of steel in the Eye is 1,700 tonnes (1,870 short tons). The project was European with major components coming from six countries: the steel was supplied from the UK and fabricated in The Netherlands by the Dutch company Hollandia, the cables came from Italy, the bearings came from Germany (FAG/Schaeffler Group), the spindle and hub were cast in the Czech Republic, the capsules were made by Poma in France (and the glass for these came from Italy), and the electrical components from the UK.

Nathaniel Lichfield and Partners (NLP) assisted the operators of the London Eye, the Tussauds Group, in obtaining planning and listed building consent to alter the Wheel on the South Bank of the Thames. NLP also examined and reported on the implications of a Section S106 attached to the original contract.

NLP also prepared planning and listed building consent applications for the permanent retention of the attraction on behalf of the London Eye Company. This has involved the co-ordination of an Environmental Statement and the production of a planning supporting statement detailing the reasons for its retention

London Eye at twilight

History

The London Eye was formally opened by the then Prime Minister, Tony Blair, on 31 December 1999, although it was not opened to the public until 9 March 2000 because of technical problems.[citation needed] Since its opening, the Eye has become a major landmark and tourist attraction.

By July 2002, 8.5 million people had ridden the Eye. It had planning permission only for five years, but at that time Lambeth Council agreed to plans to make the attraction permanent.

Since 1 January 2005, the Eye has been the focal point of London's New Year celebrations, with 10-minute displays taking place involving fireworks fired from the wheel itself.

In 2006 the Tussauds Group bought out the other two joint owners, British Airways and the Marks Barfield family (the lead architects).[citation needed] Following Merlin Entertainments' purchase of the Tussauds Group in 2007, it now owns 100% of the Eye. British Airways continued its brand association, but from the beginning of 2008 the name 'British Airways' was dropped from the logo.

On 12 August 2009 the London Eye saw another re-brand, this time calling it "The Merlin Entertainments London Eye" to show Merlin Entertainments' ownership. A new logo was designed for the attraction - this time taking the actual form of an eye made out of London's famous landmarks. This also came at the time when the new Merlin Entertainments London Eye 4D Experience pre-flight show was launched underneath the ticket centre in County Hall

During the bidding process of the 2012 Olympic Games, the London bid organisers announced the Olympic emblem would be attached to the Eye for the duration of the 2012 Summer Olympics.[14]

On 5 June 2008 it was announced that 30 million people had ridden the London Eye since its opening in March 2000.[citation needed]

In 2009 Merlin Entertainments opened a pre-flight 4D Experience at The London Eye, which is included in the ticket price. The newly refurbished ticket hall and 4D cinema experience was designed by architects Kay Elliott working with Merlin Studios project designer Craig Sciba. Merlin Studios later appointed Simex-Iwerks as the 4D theatre hardware specialists. The film was written and directed by 3D director Julian Napier and 3D produced by Phil Streather. The same year the first stage of a £12.5 million capsule upgrade started. Each 10-tonne capsule was taken down and floated down the river to Tilbury Docks in Essex.[15]

The London Eye marked its 10th anniversary on 9 March 2010

Financial difficulties

On 20 May 2005, there were reports of a leaked letter, showing that the South Bank Centre (SBC) — owners of part of the land on which the struts of the eye are located — had served a notice to quit on the attraction along with a demand for an increase in rent from £64,000 per year to £2.5 million, which the operators rejected as unaffordable.

On 25 May 2005, London mayor Ken Livingstone vowed that the landmark would remain in London. He also pledged that if the dispute was not resolved he would use his powers to ask the London Development Agency to issue a compulsory purchase order. The land in question is a small part of the Jubilee Gardens, which was given to the SBC for £1 when the Greater London Council was broken up.

The South Bank Centre and the British Airways London Eye agreed a 25-year lease on 8 February 2006, after a judicial review over the rent dispute. The lease agreement meant that the South Bank Centre, a publicly-funded charity, would receive at least £500,000 a year from the attraction, the status of which is secured for the foreseeable future. Tussauds also announced the acquisition of the entire one-third interests of British Airways and the Marks Barfield family in the Eye, as well as the outstanding debt to BA. These agreements gave Tussauds 100% ownership of the Eye and resolved the debt from the Eye's construction loan from British Airways, which stood at more than £150 million by mid-2005 and had been increasing at 25% per annum

Critical reception

Sir Richard Rogers, winner of the 2007 Pritzker Architecture Prize, wrote of the London Eye in a book about the project,

“ The Eye has done for London what the Eiffel Tower did for Paris, which is to give it a symbol and to let people climb above the city and look back down on it. Not just specialists or rich people, but everybody. That's the beauty of it: it is public and accessible, and it is in a great position at the heart of London.[20] ”

Writing for G2 in an article from August 2007, Steve Rose described the Eye as follows,

“ The Eye... exists in a category of its own.... It essentially has to fulfil only one function, and what a brilliantly inessential function it is: to lift people up from the ground, take them round a giant loop in the sky, then put them back down where they started. That is all it needs to do, and thankfully, that is all it does.

Predecessor

A predecessor to the London Eye, the Great Wheel, was built for the Empire of India Exhibition at Earls Court in 1895. Construction began in March 1894[21] and it opened to the public on 17 July 1895.[22] Modelled on the original Chicago Ferris Wheel, it was 94 metres (308 ft) tall[23] and was the first of over 200 Ferris wheels built by Australian engineers Adam Gaddelin and Gareth Watson. It stayed in service until 1906, by which time its 40 cars (each with a capacity of 40 persons) had carried over 2.5 million passengers, and was demolished in 1907

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Rio-Niterói Bridge Millau Viaduct

El Puente Presidente Costa e Silva, más conocido como Puente Río-Niterói, se encuentra localizado en la bahía de Guanabara, State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. With an area of \u200b\u200beight miles, is the longest bridge in Latin America and the seventh largest in the world, a turn communicates the municipalities of Rio de Janeiro and Niterói, part of the Brazilian highway BR-101.

Early

The concept of a bridge that managed to save the Guanabara Bay goes back to 1875. Among the factors that drove the glimpse of this project was the distance of 100 kilometers by land separating the two cities, through the town of Magé. Thus, transport was extremely difficult and slow, and among the possible solutions to conceive were building a bridge and even a tunnel, this last proposal developed subsequently.

However, the germ of the new draft would force into the twentieth century. In 1963 he was cited a working group with the aim of studying the feasibility of a project under which it would build a road bridge. On December 29, 1965 Executive Committee was formed to create and develop the final draft of the bridge. The executive committee was composed of a consortium of two companies: Rio de Noronha Engenharia firm who prepared the draft access to the Rio de Janeiro bridge and Niterói, and the concrete bridge over the sea, and the U.S. firm Howard, Needles, Tammen & Bergendorf who handled the steel distance between the main supporting points, including the pillars. The engineers responsible were Anonio Alves de Noronha (son), Benjamin U.S. Ernani Diaz and James Graham.

Brazilian president Artur da Costa e Silva signed a decree on August 23, 1968 which authorized the construction of the bridge, designed by Mario Andreazza, then Minister of Transport and under whose management would complete the construction phase.

Symbolically the start of construction was the November 9, 1968, as at that date were on an official visit to Brazil the queen Elizabeth II and His Royal Highness Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, Britain. The proper construction began in January 1969.

Construction

The bank responsible for funding the work was the M. Rothschild & Sons. It was allowed the exclusive participation of British companies in the bidding process for the manufacture of steel beams. Therefore, to realize the work the Brazilian Finance Minister Antonio Delfim Netto, the engineer Eliseu Resende and Rothschild & Sons in London signed a document that ensured the supply of steel structures, with a length of 848m including supporting points of the beams of 200m × 300m × 200m and two additional intervals of 74 m. The cost of these structures results in a loan of approximately $ 22,000,000 (U.S. $) in British banks. If you add this value to the investment made by the Brazilian government to cover the costs for other services of the bridge, this sum amounts to 113,951,370 from Cruzeiro (NCR $) Brazilian.

In total, the investment was approximately $ 289,683,970 NCR, with the difference paid for by the issuance of Treasury Indexed Bonds in Brazil. In 1971, the procurement contract for the construction of the bridge was canceled due to delays in the works, and construction became the responsibility of a new consortium of construction companies Camargo Correa, and Constructora Mendes Junior Constructor Guanabara Rabello denomidado Consortium, with completed three years later. The consortium was responsible for the construction of concrete structures, and the architect responsible for the construction was Bruno Contarini, and his chief of construction methods Mario Vila Verde. Construction firms in steel structures were Dormann & Long, Cleveland Bridge and Engineering Montreal. Were manufactured in modules that came to Brazil by ship. A structure of them, central, was manufactured by the same manufacturers but given its size was made in the Ilha do Caju, located in Guanabara Bay, and the assembly of structures. During construction, five workers died.

Other information

The link road was completed on March 4, 1974, with a full extension of 13.29 km, of which 8.83 km are on the water Guanabara Bay, and its highest point reaching 72 feet high and run on it about 140,000 vehicles per day in normal flows as the concessionaire of the bridge, Ponte SA. Is currently regarded as the largest pre-stressed concrete bridge in the Southern Hemisphere and the seventh largest bridge in the world. For 1974 managed to be the second longest bridge in the world, surpassed only by the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway in the United States. In 1985, with the opening of Penang Bridge in Malaysia snatched the Rio-Niterói Bridge as second place. By the time of its inauguration, it was expected that the investment would be recovered through the profits from tolls within eight years, and the user should continue to pay the fixed value after liquidation debt that kept the Brazilian State. The rates at the time of its opening were 2.00 Cruzeiro (Cr $) for motorcycles, Cr $ 20.00 for buses and trucks and three-axis normal and Cr $ 70.00 for trucks with six axles.

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The viaduct of Millau in Aveyron (France), is the highest bridge in the world. Opened on December 14, 2004 after 36 months of construction, the structure reaches a maximum height of 343 meters above the river Tarn, and a length of 2,460 m, between Causse and Causse du Larzac Rouge has 7 pillars of concrete, and the board has a width of 32 meters.
About 3,000 people worked on this project, which cost almost 400 million euros.
The Millau Viaduct was formally conceived the French engineer Michel Virlogeux.

Description
The Millau Viaduct consists of eight steel deck sections, which are based on seven concrete pillars. The roadway weighs 36,000 tons and spans of 2,460 meters, width of 32 m and a thickness of 4.3 m. The 6 interior sections of the viaduct are 342 m, while the two extreme measure 204 m. The highway has a slight slope of 3%, down north-south, and curves in a flat section with a radius of 20 km. The latter was intended to give better visibility to motorists. It has two traffic lanes in each direction.
The pillars have between 77 and 246 m and go to have a longitudinal section of 24.5 m at the base to 11 m at the top. Each pillar is itself made up of 16 sections, each of which weighs 2,230 tonnes and total bridge weighs around 350,000 tons. These sections were assembled at the construction site from pieces of 17 meters long, 4 meters wide and weighing 60 tons, which were manufactured in Lauterbourg and Fos-Sur-Mer by the construction company Eiffage. Pillars mounted first, along with a number of temporary supports, and prior to the placement of the beams, which were guided by satellite signals and set to a speed of 600 mm every 4 minutes. Millau Viaduct d
almost double the height of which until then was the world's tallest bridge, the Europabrücke, Austria. He also became the highest road bridge if one looks at the street level. The height of 270 m which is the same, more than 268 m bridge over the New River Valley in West Virginia, USA. The 321 m bridge over the Arkansas River than the Millau viaduct, but in this case is a pedestrian bridge.

location.


Construction of the viaduct construction began on October 10, 2001 and was extended over three years, but ultimately benign weather conditions allowed the study was conducted as scheduled. The viaduct was inaugurated by President Chirac on 14 December 2004 and open to the public two days later. Preliminary studies

During preliminary studies considered four options:
bypass Millau to the east, which would require two major bridges over the Tarn and Dourbie.
bypass Millau to the west, crossing A total of 12 km, which would require the construction of four bridges. Follow the path
National Route 9, which would provide good access to technical difficulties Millau but would also pass through the population.
Crossing the valley between.
This fourth option was chosen by the government on June 28, 1989. In turn, considered two different possibilities: the high resolution and low resolution, which would involve building a bridge of 200 m to cross the Tarn, followed by a viaduct of 2,300 m extended with a side tunnel Larzac. After lengthy feasibility studies, the low solution was abandoned because of its higher cost, environmental impact and because the distance for drivers is higher.
Having decided that the solution is the large, five teams of architects and engineers worked on simultaneously seeking a technical solution. Builders



General plan of the viaduct, with the town of Millau on the right.

The construction company that won the contract to build the viaduct was the Compagnie du Viaduc de Millau Eiffage. The construction consortium was made by the company Eiffage TP for the concrete sections, the Eiffel company for the laying of steel sections and the company Enerpac, who was in charge of the hydraulic supports the highway.
The engineering group Setec assumed responsibilities in the project, while the SNCF had partial control of it. The bid
, three consortia bid for the award of contract:
The first, led by English firm Dragados, in partnership with Skanska (Sweden) and Bec (French).
La Société du Viaduc de Millau, comprising ASF, Egis, GTM, Bouygues Travaux Publics, SGE, CDC Projets, Tofinso (all French) and Autostrade (Italy).
A third consortium, led by Générale Routière, with Via GTI (both French), along with Cintra, Necso, Acciona, Ferrovial Agroman (English).
The conceptual and structural design of the bridge is original work of the Frenchman Michel Virlogeux, while the architects responsible for aesthetic and formal aspects of the work belonged to the British firm Foster and Partners, led by Lord Norman Foster. Along with the above, was the Dutch engineering firm Arcadis, responsible for the technical design of the viaduct.


construction process is first built batteries that withstand the pylons in the final configuration of the bridge. The board construction was carried out at the ends. Using this technique, and as they build the cross sections, periodically pushed through the board on the batteries, leaving room for the placement of new bridge sections. To avoid overexertion that forced large increase over the section concerning the level of service, they set a series of intermediate propping so that the openings were for shorter runs during the construction phase. Once pushed the board from both sides and reached the junction, in solidarity both halves and placed stiffening towers. Finally, temporary propping withdrawn.


Costs and resources The total cost of construction of the viaduct was 394 million euros, to which must be added an additional EUR 20 million for the building toll booths, located 6 km north of the structure. The project
127,000 m³ of concrete used, 19,000 metric tons of steel for reinforcement of concrete and 5,000 tons of reinforced concrete. According to the construction company, the life of the viaduct will be no less than 120 years. Eiffage
funded the work in exchange for toll concession until 2080. Anyway, if the grant is to be very profitable, the French government can regain control of the concession in 2044. Data


2,460 m: total length of the viaduct.
7: the number of pillars.
70 m: height of pillar 7 the lowest.
336 m: height of the pillar 2, the highest (245 m to the level of the highway).
270 m: the typical height of the highway.
4.20 m: thickness of the road.
32.05 m: width of the highway.
127,000 m³, the volume of concrete used in the bridge.
290,000 tonnes: total weight of the structure
10,000 to 25,000 vehicles: estimated daily traffic.
4.90 to 6.90 euros, typical to pay tolls to cross the viaduct.


Project Chronology June 28, 1989: Adoption of the alternative government through the valley of the Tarn.
October 19, 1991: Selection of "high resolution" requiring a viaduct of 2500 m in length.
January 10, 1995: Declaration of utilité publique (public interest).
July 9, 1996: Choosing the type of bridge, suspended by cables.
1998: decides to hire a private consortium for the construction, giving the toll concession in return.
October 16, 2001: work began.
December 14, 2001: laying the first block.
January 2002: foundations are made of piles.
March 2002: start work on the pile C8.
July 2002: start working on the foundations of the temporary supports.
August 2002: start work on the pile C0.
February 26, 2003, is likely the last stretches of highways.
November 2003: the completion of work on the piles.
May 28, 2004: Segments of the highway are separated by a few centimeters, anticipating the end of the meetings in the coming weeks.
second half of 2004: the temporary supports are removed.
December 14, 2004: official opening.
December 16, 2004: the viaduct opens to the public.
January 10, 2005: Opening date.
2044: the French government can take over the toll concession, if it is very profitable. 2080
: ending session toll concession granted to the group Eiffage. Yoseph

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